Last week we discussed the second quality of leadership, justice (iustitia). We found that it was the responsibility of everyone to be just, both passively and actively. Not only was it important not to harm others, but it was also necessary to step in and stop others from harming others when it was possible. In De Officiis, Cicero talks about another aspect of justice called benignitas. This is commonly referred to as ‘positive justice’ or more simply as generosity. Other equivalents include liberality, kindness, and beneficence; however, liberality and beneficence are rarely used in normal speech today and kindness does not emphasise the giving aspect which generosity does. Therefore, let us continue our journey and further our knowledge of justice and the qualities of leadership with a discussion on generosity.
Initially, it is difficult to see the link between generosity and justice. In fact, they appear to be in conflict. If I go to work and make £100, and then give that £100 to somebody else, am I not being unjust to myself? The world view of the Stoics from which Cicero pulls his conception of justice says that this is not the case. This answer is based on their fundamental understanding of existence and the human being. They believed that
“Everything produced on earth is created for the use of mankind, and men are born for the sake of men, so that they may be able to assist one another.” (Off. 1.22)
In this way, we find that one’s experience of nature and creation is that everything is made perfectly for us as humans. The rain and rivers provide us with water to drink. The earth and animals provide us with food to eat. The sun provides us with light during the day and sets in the evening to give darkness so that we may sleep and regain our energy. Trees provide us with shade while they live and wood after they die. Firewood keeps us warm, and the ashes are then used to give nutrients to the earth to grow more. That everything on earth has been created for mankind is even more evident today. Our advances in technology and engineering have shown us that the possibilities which the earth offers mankind, are almost endless. Electricity, high speed transport, the internet, and worldwide communication have been made possible with the resources the earth gives us. However, this is not to make us arrogant or entitled. Instead, we must remember that we are also a part of this world. We are not outside observers of nature but a fundamental part of it as well. We are also born for the benefit of mankind. It is in our human nature to do things for other people and be generous. From this perspective, the meaning of existence and human life is to be generous. It is not unjust to be generous. It is more than just because it allows us to better fulfil our nature calling and realise our meaning in life.
Since generosity has its foundation in justice. It is important that all generosity remains within the realm of justice. One cannot be generous if others are harmed in the process. If I steal a bike so that I can give it to someone else, I am not being generous. Similarly, it is not generous if the person we are being generous to is harmed. Cicero warns us against people who practice fake generosity like this, calling them dangerous flatterers (perniciosi assentatores). The reign of Tiberius (about 70 years after the death of Cicero) is well-known for being full of this type of character. They were people who did not mean what they said nor acted with pure intentions. Instead, they would say and do whatever they needed to get what they wanted. There are those with malicious intentions who are unjust and intentionally fake generosity. However, normal people who have good intentions also fall into traps of injustice when trying to be generous. One of the traps to watch out for is trying to be generous with more than we capable of giving. When we do this, we are led to injustice because we end up using the resources and property that rightfully belong to somebody else. Cicero tells us that,
“Those who want to be more generous (benignitas) than their capabilities allow first go wrong by being unjust to those nearest to them; they transfer to strangers resources which would more fairly be provided for, or left to, them.” (Off. 1.44)
I’m sure we have all been in a situation in which we have given beyond our capabilities, and the ones closest to us have had to pay the price. It is very easy to take advantage of those closest to us by assuming that they will not mind and are happy to help. The truth of the matter is that we do not have the right to make such a judgement for them, nor is it truly generous to give from what does not rightly belong to us. This can be understood literally, such as when one feeds a stranger from food which should rightly go to one’s family, or in a more abstract sense, such as when one is patient with strangers to the point that one is exhausted and has no patience for those closest to one. As we know, it is the emotions (perturbationes) which most often cause people to become unjust, and they are usually the cause of this pseudo-generosity. For example, people often fall into this trap when they have a desire to be thought of as generous by others or even themselves. One might tell oneself, ‘This poor man needs food and what a terrible person I would be to refuse him’ or ‘So many people are watching, if I don’t give this poor man anything they will think I am selfish’. One might think that a desire to be generous for whatever reason is a good thing. However, this is a not the case. The emotions (perturbationes) are agitations of the inward state (animus) away from natural rationality (ratio). Generosity is also natural and in line with rationality. Our human nature will guide us to being generous. The emotions cause us to rationalise and move away from rationality and nature and so will lead us away from true generosity. Desire and fear should neither encourage nor discourage us from being generous. All we need to do is listen to our instincts and be generous when the natural call to be so arises.
Being generous is good and honourable. However, we must remember that it is not essential. Cicero tells us that one of the most important aspects of generosity is that it is voluntary. It is the responsibility of everyone to be just, but nobody is required to be generous or give anything of their own property to anyone else. Although it is more fulfilling of our purpose as human beings, generosity is not something that can be forced. If someone is forced to be generous by either internal or external forces (being pulled by emotions or being persuaded by others), it is not true generosity. We should never feel like we have to be generous, nor should we demand generosity from anyone else. Being generous must be a voluntary choice. Those who consciously choose to be generous and serve others, giving of themselves with no expectation of anything in return are the worthiest of praise. They are the best of humanity and the worthiest of positions of leadership.
