We have finally arrived at our vantage point from which we can see ourselves and the world from a different perspective. Over the last few months, we have discussed a wide range of Ciceronian vocabulary which has led us, step by step, to a deeper understanding. We have gone from rationality (ratio), the natural and divine force of the universe, to a model of the inward state (animus) of the human being with emotions (perturbationes) and drives. From there, we moved into the social arena and discussed the four qualities of leadership (virtus) and the outward responsible actions (officia) which were necessary for the creation and maintenance of a healthy society of any size. Through our discussions of the inward and outward models, we realised that they were very closely connected. In fact, it was impossible to separate the two. We even described psychology as inward politics and politics was outward psychology. To finish this series, I want to discuss a word that is as important to us in the 21st century as it was in Rome two millennia ago. It is a word used so often that its meaning is rarely disputed because it seems self-explanatory. The word in Latin is libertas and it is the concept of liberty and freedom. If we consider ourselves as free individuals living in the free world, it is only appropriate that we consider what being free means to us and what the implications are.
It is generally accepted that freedom is the ‘power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants’. It is the opposite of slavery in which one has no power to do or say what one wants. A person is free when he can make his own choices. A slave, on the other hand, cannot make his own choices and is forced to behave in a particular way. therefore, freedom is determined by one’s relationships in the outward political realm. To simplify, there are two basic types of relationship. The first, is between two free people who do not force each other to behave in any particular way. The second is between a tyrant and a slave in which a tyrant uses force to influence the behaviour of the slave. These archetypal relationships are the foundation of either a free society or a tyrannical society. Of course, in a free society, the citizens are free and cannot be forced to do anything, while in a tyrannical society, the citizens are slaves to a tyrant who maintains control with force. However, it is important that we do not romanticize freedom. Freedom must have limits. It would be impossible to maintain a free society if everyone was allowed to do whatever they wanted. For example, it would be far beyond the limits for someone to have the freedom to become a tyrant. This is why we have responsible actions (officia). The Responsible actions give limits to a free man in a free society and are required to resist the external force of tyrannical characters. It is when freedom is taken for granted and people start acting irresponsibly that the society becomes vulnerable to tyranny. In this situation, freedom degenerates into license. It is important that we differentiate the two. License does not have limits and allows one to do whatever one wants at whatever expense to oneself, others, and society. Freedom, on the other hand, allows one to make choices independent of any external force and comes with a responsibility which must be respected if it is to be maintained. Therefore, let us refine our definition of freedom from the ‘power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants’ to the ‘power or right to act, speak, or think independently and responsibly’. Freedom is a responsibility. Since a free man has the privilege of independent choice, he is responsible for his actions and where those actions lead him. If he chooses to act irresponsibly, he chooses to risk his freedom and make himself vulnerable to tyranny which is much harder to get out off than to avoid.
This concept of liberty is political and faces outward. However, what makes Cicero’s conception of liberty so profound is that it also faces inward. While our outward freedom is determined by our capacity to resist external forces and make independent choices, our inward freedom is determined by our capacity to resist internal forces. In the same way as a tyrant, our emotions (perturbationes) force us to act in a certain way, either to pursue or avoid a particular thing. One is incapable of making their own independent decisions when under the influence of the emotions. Using the same political vocabulary from the previous paragraph, the tyranny of the emotions makes us inward slaves. For one to be inwardly free, one must be capable of resisting these inward forces. In psychological terms, this inward slave is an addict. The addict is not free. He is enslaved by his desire for whatever he is addicted to, whether that be a drug, money, power, food, or anything, and his fear of what might happen if he does not acquire it. This emotional force is too much for his true self to resist, and so the addict submits to the tyranny of his addiction. A society does not become tyrannical overnight but degenerates as freedom turns to license. In the same way, one does not become an addict overnight but slowly becomes one as one acts irresponsibly. In this way, inward freedom is also a responsibility and must be maintained through the responsible action of resisting the inward forces of the emotions.
The outward and inward reality of freedom reflect each other. We see this clearly with the figure of the tyrant. The tyrant wants to be free and thinks he can achieve this by using the fear of force to dominate the rest of society. In his position of power, he appears to be free. The rest of society are enslaved and cannot stop him from pursuing whatever he wants outwardly. However, this is only the appearance of freedom. The tyrant is not free. Cicero points out that:
“Those who wish to be feared cannot but themselves be afraid of the very men who fear them.” (Off. 2.24)
The tyrant does not escape the slavery to which he condemns the rest of his society. The tyrant is enslaved by his desire for power and the fear that others might take it from him. He is addicted to power. The tyrant is in a state of inward slavery. In this way, in a tyrannical society, neither the tyrant nor the citizens are free. The citizens are slaves in the outward and the tyrant is a slave in the inward. Tyranny is slavery for everyone. However, a tyrant can only maintain his power through the fear of force. Therefore, a person who allows the fear of a tyrant’s force make him submit is allowing his emotions to dictate and control his behaviour. One must already be an inward slave to become an outward slave. The tyrant has no power and cannot exist unless slaves submit to his force. He can take your life, but you must hand over your freedom voluntarily. Therefore, the slave is as much to blame for the tyrannical society as the tyrant. Both parties decided not to be free. Tyranny and slavery are flip sides of the same coin. The tyrant cannot exist without the slave, nor can the slave live without the tyrant.
True freedom requires the capacity to resist force both inwardly and outwardly. Someone who is free inwardly, can resist the force of his emotions. Therefore, the fear of force which the tyrant uses to maintain power is useless against him. By taking on the inward responsibility of controlling one’s emotions, one gains the capacity to resist the external forces of the tyrant. A tyrant has no power over a free man. Therefore, if you a part of a tyrannical society, whether the tyrant or the slave, realise that this outward reality is reflected in yourself. Your inward state shapes your outward reality, and your outward reality shapes your inward state. Therefore, for any meaningful change you must change both your inward and your outward. The one cannot be fixed without the other. One cannot retreat inside, nor escape outside. If you want to be free, you must take full responsibility and resist!
Thank You to all of you for joining me on this journey! I hope reading these articles has been as enjoyable, interesting, and challenging for you as writing them has been for me. Although I will be taking a bit of a break from the writing, this is still only the beginning of the Via Ciceronis. There will be much more coming in the future.
“The political philosopher is concerned with the discovery of motives, the measure of wills, the balance of interests. He will, in fact, be driven to the perception that, politically, there is no such thing as sovereignty at all. He will see that, ultimately, the basis of all power is in the consent offered to action by each individual mind: and he may therefore induce the conclusion that liberty is the capacity to resist”
Harold Laski – Foundations of Soverreignty
